2. AGRICULTURAL SECTOR in COLONIAL RULE
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR in COLONIAL RULE
- Agrarian economy; 85% population in villages, derived livelihood from agriculture.
- Stagnation in agriculture sector: because of favorable land settlements (Zamindari system, Mahalwari, Ryotwari).
- Absolute Agricultural productivity LOW; Some growth in total production due to expansion of aggregate area (Non-fertile to fertile).
- Commercialization of agriculture but many problems- investment in terracing, flood-control, drainage, desalinisation of soil.
- Tenants, small farmers, sharecroppers not had- resources, technology, incentive to invest in agriculture for CASH CROPS.
BERNIER: French traveler came in Bengal 2 times (in 17th AD): Described the prosperity of India as:
- Richer than Egypt,
- Abundance exports of cottons, silks, rice, sugar and butter;
- Produces enough for own consumption- wheat, vegetables, grains, fowls, ducks and geese;
- Rear- pigs, sheep, goats, Fish of every kind;
- Endless number of canals (from the Ganges) from Raajmahal to sea; for navigation and irrigation.
ZAMINDARI SYSTEM:
- Implemented by: Lord Cornwallis in 1990 and converted as permanent settlement in 1993.
- Area: Bengal Presidency , eastern states, Varanasi; Fertile areas.
How did exploitation ?
- Profit accruing out of the agriculture sector went to the zamindars instead of the cultivators.
- Did nothing to improve the condition of agriculture (Neither zamindars nor colonial government):
- Zamindar’s main interest: collect rent regardless of the economic condition of the cultivators; IMPECT: agricultural productivity decrease-> plight of the farmers (Other causes: low levels of technology, lack of irrigation facilities and negligible use of fertilizers)
- Why such attitude by Zamindars ? In this revenue settlement, dates for depositing specified sums of revenue were fixed, failing which the zamindars were to lose their rights. Later introduced distance Zamindaris system.
- Commercialization of agriculture: In certain areas, cash crops produced but couldn’t improve real situation of peasants because:
- These cash crops ultimately used by British industries.
- cropping pattern changed by some farmers (food crops to commercial crops) but a large section (tenants, small farmers and sharecroppers) not had resources, technology and incentive.
- Some improvements in irrigation but lack of investment in terracing, flood-control, drainage and desalinisation of soil.
Land Revenue Systems Before British Rule
Tax from the land was a major source of revenue for the kings and emperors from ancient times. But the ownership pattern of land had witnessed changes over centuries.
During Kingship, the land was divided into Jagirs, Jagirs were alloted to Jagirdars, these Jagirdars split the land they got and allocated to sub-ordinate Zamindars.
Zamindars made peasants cultivate the land, in return collected part of their revenue as tax.
Land Revenue Systems in British India :
Three major systems of land revenue collection existed in India. They were – Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari.
- Zamindari System (Permanent Land Revenue Settlement)
- Introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through the Permanent Settlement Act.
- Introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.
- Zamindarswere recognized as the ownerof the lands. Zamindars were given the rights to collect the rent from the peasants.
- While the zamindars became the owners of the land, the actual farmers became tenants.
- The tax was to be paid even at the time of poor yield.
- The tax was to be paid in cash. Before introducing this system, the tax could be paid in kind.
- Share of Zamindars -1/11 of collection and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India Company.
PROBLEMS CREATED BY THE BRITISH LAND REVENUE POLICIES
- Land revenue policies affected the agricultural sector deeply.
- When farmers unable to pay money (tax) before the deadline, their land can be seized by zamindars without court case, So had to take a loan from moneylenders at a high rate of interest after mortgaging agricultural land. If could not pay back the loan and interest, land be seized by the money lenders. (Debt trap)
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Ryotwari System
- Ryotwari system was introduced by thomas munro in 1820.
- This was the primary land revenue system in south india.
- Major areas of introduction include madras, bombay, parts of assam and coorg provinces of british india.
- In ryotwari system the ownership rightswere handed over to the peasants. British government collected taxes directly from the peasants.
- The revenue rates of the ryotwari system were 50% where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land.
- Though ownership of land was vested with the farmers, excessive tax impoverished them. Furthermore, the tax rates were frequently increased.
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Mahalwari System
- Mahalwari system was introduced in 1822 by holt mackenzie. Later, the system was reformed during the period of william bentick (1833).
- This was the primary land revenue system in north-west india.
- It was introduced in central province, north-west frontier, agra, punjab, gangetic valley, etc of british india.
- In this system, the land was divided into mahals. Each mahal comprises one or more villages.
- The entire village (mahal) was considered as a single unit for tax collection.
- The village headman or villages committee was assigned the responsibility to collect tax.
- Ownership rightswere vested with the peasants.
- The tax rate was excessive in this system too.
- The mahalwari system had many provisions of both the zamindari system and ryotwari system.